Appendix A
The Governors of Mount Lebanon, 1861–1918
According to article 1 of the Règlement , the governor of Mount Lebanon should be "a Christian appointed by the Ottoman government and directly responsible to the Sublime Porte." In the course of time, additional conditions concerning the selection of the governor took form as a result of negotiations between the guarantor powers, including the Ottoman State. It was agreed that the governor should be a Catholic Christian Ottoman functionary and that he should serve with the rank of pasha (that is, the equivalent of "vizier" for civilian bureaucrats, and "general" for officers). The governor was selected by the unanimous decision of the guarantor powers from a list of names proposed by the Ottoman government. The decision was to be taken at a conference of the guarantor powers' ambassadors to Istanbul with the Ottoman foreign minister, ratified by a protocol, and promulgated by an imperial decree. The term of office of the governor was also specified. In addition, each conference served as an occasion to review the affairs of Mount Lebanon and make the necessary amendments in its constitution, again by the unanimous decision of the guarantor powers.[1]
The governors selected by this process were invariably the product of the Tanzîmât (reorganization) reforms, which were intended to modernize the Ottoman administrative system and also to involve the non-Muslim elements in that system on an (in principle) egalitarian basis. A steadily increasing number of non-Muslim bureaucrats who were incorporated into the unfolding Ottoman administrative system served as the pool from which the nominees for the governorship of Mount Lebanon were drawn.[2] A glance at the personal background of the governors of Mount Lebanon should cast light on not only the history of the mutasarrifiyya but also the human dimensions of the Ottoman attempts at reorganization.
1.
Davud Pasha (1861–1868)
Davud, the son of Karabet Artin, was born around 1816 in Istanbul. He belonged to the Armenian Catholic Church. His parents placed him with a French family in Istanbul, and then in a French school in Izmir, in order to help him learn a European language. He also attended the School of Jurisprudence (Mekteb-i Ma'ârif-i'Adliye ), which was established in 1839 to train young bureaucrats. Davud then joined the Foreign Ministry and spent several years in the Ottoman Legation in Berlin and served as the Ottoman consul-general in Vienna. During his tenure abroad he attended the universities of Berlin and Jena, studying law. In 1845, he published a compilation of ancient Germanic tribal laws and customs (Histoire de la législation des Anciens Germains , 2 vols., Berlin). He also seems to have received a doctorate in law from the University of Jena in 1853 (or 1858?). In 1857 he returned to Istanbul to head the Government Publications Department. The next year he became the director of Telegraph Services. He also assisted the foreign minister in several missions abroad, and so established himself in diplomatic circles.
He was appointed governor of Mount Lebanon for a term of three years on the basis of the protocol of 9 June 1861 and the imperial decree of 9 M 1278 (17 July 1861). Simultaneously, he was given the rank of vizier. According to the protocol of 6 September 1864, his term was extended for five years. He resigned in May 1868, in view of the reluctance of the Porte to increase his powers.
Back in Istanbul, he was appointed minister of Public Works. Later, however, he was charged with misconduct in handling the official negotiations with Baron Hirsch over financing a railroad project in Rumelia. His vizirate was rescinded when he chose not to be present at his trial and instead stayed in Europe. He died in Biarritz in 1873.
Davud was divorced from his British wife in 1861 and left no heirs. He bequeathed his considerable wealth to the Armenian Catholic Church in Istanbul to be used for the education of needy children.[3]
2.
Franko Pasha (1868–1873)
Franko, the son of Nasri Kusa, was born in Istanbul in 1814. He belonged to the Greek Catholic Church. His family, the Kusas, was originally from Aleppo, and spoke Arabic at home. Franko Nasri joined the Ottoman Foreign Ministry at a young age, studied several languages as part of his training, and rose to the position of chief secretary for foreign affairs. He accompanied Fuad Pasha as a chief aide in legal matters and translator in the latter's Syrian mission in 1860. He was later promoted to head the Galata Customs Office in Istanbul.
He was given the rank of vizier and appointed governor of Mount Lebanon by the imperial decrees of 13 and 19 S 1285 (5 and 11 June 1868). His governorship was ratified and its term set for ten years by the protocol of 27 July 1868 and the imperial decree of 7 Ca 1285 (26 August 1868). He died on 2 February 1873, long before the completion of his term.
He was survived by four sons and two daughters. Three of his sons, Nasri Franko, Yusuf Franko, and Fethi Franko, and one of his son-in-laws, Naum Tütüncü, became high-ranking officials in the Ottoman Foreign Service.[4]
3.
Rüstem Pasha (1873–1883)
Rüstem "Mariani" was born in 1810 in Florence of Italian parents. He belonged to the Latin Church. His father was believed to be a count and from a family (the Marianis) with deep roots in Ottoman lands. Rüstem grew up in affluence and received a good education. But when his father became impoverished and died prematurely, he sought a career in the Ottoman Foreign Ministry. Thanks to his mother's contacts, he became a protégé of the Ottoman ambassador to Rome. He moved to Istanbul with the ambassador, acquired Ottoman citizenship, and rose rapidly in the Foreign Ministry. After serving as translator and confidential secretary for different ministers, he was first appointed Ottoman plenipotentiary in Florence and Rome, and finally ambassador to St. Petersburg. He was well respected in diplomatic circles as well as in the higher echelons of the Ottoman bureaucracy.
Rüstem was promoted to the rank of vizier and appointed governor of Mount Lebanon by the imperial decrees of 15 and 21 Z 1289 (February 1873). His governorship was ratified by the ambassadorial conference and the protocol of 22 April 1873 for a term of ten years.
After completing his term, he was appointed Ottoman ambassador to London, where he died in 1885. Rüstem never married.[5]
4.
Vasa Pasha (1883–1892)
Vasa was born in 1824 in Skodra (Scutari), in northern Albania. He was of the Mirdites clan and a Roman Catholic. Vasa was sent to Rome for his education. He devoted much of his time to studying languages and literature. He wrote and translated poems, plays, and literary and historical essays. A collection of his poems in Italian was eventually published. He also wrote a book on Albanian cultural history which was translated into English under the title The Truth on Albania and the Albanians: Historical and Critical (London, 1879).
When he was about twenty years old, he came to Istanbul as much to participate in the lively literary activities of the capital as to improve his Turkish and to seek a career in the service of the Ottoman government. He joined the Foreign Ministry and rose to the position of counselor (müstesâr ) in the Ottoman Embassy in London. Later he switched to the Interior Ministry and was assigned to several important missions which involved the pacification of restive areas and implementation of administrative reforms. He served mostly in the European provinces but also in Aleppo, where he stayed for six years and added Arabic to his collection of languages. At the time of his appointment to Mount Lebanon, he was the counselor of the Province of Edirne.
Vasa was appointed to Mount Lebanon for a term of ten years on the basis of the protocol of 8 May 1883 and imperial decrees of 3 and 10 B 1300 (10–17 May 1883). Unlike his predecessors, Vasa had serious competition during his selection. The other candidates were Nasri Franko Kusa, who was at the time chief secretary of the Ottoman Embassy in Vienna; Danis Efendi, the Ottoman consul general in Ragusa; Bedros Efendi Kuyumcuyan, an Armenian Catholic and director of the Mines and Forests Department; and Bartev Antuan Efendi from the Ministry of Justice. Vasa emerged as a compromise candidate in this competition. He served in Mount Lebanon until his death on 26 June 1892, shortly before the completion of his term.
Vasa was married three times. His second wife, a Greek Orthodox, died while he was serving in Mount Lebanon. He remarried to a French woman settled in Beirut, and this union produced two sons. Vasa also had a daughter from his first marriage. His son-in-law, Kupelyan (Küpeliyan?) Efendi, worked as head of the Foreign Correspondence Bureau under Vasa in Mount Lebanon, becoming as famous for his cupidity as his intelligence.[6]
5.
Naum Pasha (1892–1902)
Naum was born in 1846 in Istanbul. He was a Latin Catholic and of the Tütüncü family with roots in Aleppo. The name of the family implies that it was involved in the tobacco trade. Naum himself was brought up to serve in the Ottoman government. In this respect, the influence of Franko Pasha, who was his maternal uncle and became his father-in-law, is evident.
Naum attended Galatasaray, the imperial lycée established to train an elite corps of public servants. Upon his graduation he joined the Foreign Ministry. He briefly served as confidential secretary in the Ottoman Em-
bassy in St. Petersburg. At his own insistence he was recalled to Istanbul, where he spent most of his career and rose to the position of undersecretary in charge of the Foreign Correspondence Office.
In accordance with the protocol of 15 August 1892 and the imperial decree of 24 M 1310 (17 August 1892), he was elevated to the rank of vizier and appointed governor of Mount Lebanon for a term of five years. His rivals in the selection were: Selim Melhame, a Maronite close to the sultan and the minister of Mines and Forests; Bedros Kuyumcuyan; Nasri Franko; Fethullah Efendi, another Aleppan and a member of the State Council; and a certain Gadban (?) Efendi. Naum ran into little competition, however, when his term was extended for an additional five years by the protocol of 14 August 1897.
Naum returned to Istanbul in 1902 to resume his former post as director of the Foreign Correspondence Office. In 1907–08, he was appointed Ottoman ambassador to Paris, where he died in 1911. He was survived by a son, who also entered the Ottoman Foreign Ministry in 1907.[7]
6.
Muzaffer Pasha (1902–1907)
Muzaffer was born around 1837–40 as Ladislas Czaykowski, the son of a Polish count, Michael (Izador) Czaykowski. His birthplace is not certain. His father, who was active in the Polish independence movement against Russia, fled to Istanbul and entered the service of the sultan in the 1830s. He acquired the rank of general (pasha) and converted to Islam, adopting the name of Sadik. He also renamed his two sons, Adam and Ladislas, as Enver and Muzaffer, though they (and their mother?) remained Roman Catholics. Sadik Pasha fought in the Crimean War (1856) on the Ottoman side. Later he returned to Poland and converted to Orthodox Christianity. As he continued to work for Polish independence, however, he was expelled from the army. In frustration, he committed suicide. Adam (Enver), who had returned to Poland together with his father and entered the Polish army as an officer, pursued a successful career there.
Muzaffer, who attended the prestigious French military school of St. Cyr, chose to seek a career in the service of the Ottoman government. Upon his graduation in 1863, he entered the cavalry corps of the Ottoman army. In 1867 he became a military aide to Sultan Abdulaziz and accompanied him on his European tour of 1870. Muzaffer fought in the 1877 war against Russia, became an aide to Abdulhamid II, and served as a member of the military reforms and military inspection committees. Simultaneously, he was appointed the commander of the Imperial, Stable, a position which required the sultan's confidence.
In 1902 Muzaffer appeared as a surprise candidate for the governorship of Mount Lebanon. His rivals were much better known in diplomatic circles: Yusuf Franko and his brother Fethi Franko, both high officials in the Foreign Ministry; Danis Efendi; and Morel Bey, the counselor of the Ottoman Embassy in Berlin. Nevertheless, growing reaction to the Kusas and their local allies in the Mountain, and the failure of the ambassadorial conference to agree on any other person than Muzaffer, determined the final choice. According to the protocol of 2 September 1902 and the imperial decree of 28 C 1320 (2 October 1902), Muzaffer became governor of Mount Lebanon for a term of five years and with the rank of müsir (pasha). He died on 28 June 1907, shortly before the completion of his term.
Muzaffer was married to the daughter of the translator of the Russian Embassy in Istanbul. A high liver, she often made it difficult for Muzaffer to make both ends meet. They had two sons, Fuad and Resid, both of whom joined the Ottoman Foreign Ministry. Fuad appears to have pursued a humble but steady career, rising—so far as his career can be traced—to the position of consul in Brazil. Resid, on the other hand, caused his family much embarrassment. He was expelled from the Foreign Ministry when he was serving in France, apparently for his gambling habits and rakish behavior. He was then also forced to leave France because of swindling charges. He came to Mount Lebanon, but his behavior there caused the Porte to order Muzaffer to send his son away. Resid left for Italy, where his libertine habits brought his adventurous life finally to an end in prison.[8]
7.
Yusuf Pasha (1907–1912)
Yusuf, the son of Franko Kusa, was born in Istanbul in 1856. He was a Greek Catholic. He spent the years 1868–1873 in Mount Lebanon, where he continued his education under private tutors. He then joined the Ottoman Foreign Ministry. In 1899 he became director of the Foreign Correspondence Office and represented the Ottoman State at the Hague Peace Conference. He was in charge of the foreign minister's private secretariat (kalem-i mahsûs ) at the time of his appointment to Mount Lebanon, for a term of five years and with the rank of vizier, by the protocol of 8 July 1907 and the imperial decree of 28 Ca 1325 (9 July 1907). He was the sole candidate of all the parties involved.
After completing his term, Yusuf was appointed to the Senate. It is not known what became of him thereafter. He was married to the daughter of a French banker in Istanbul. They had two daughters.[9]
8.
Ohannes Pasha (1912–1915)
Ohannes, the son of Bedros Kuyumcuyan, was born in Istanbul in 1852. He was an Armenian Catholic. The name of the family suggests that at one point its members were jewelers; they were certainly wealthy. Ohannes' father, Bedros, was himself a career bureaucrat and a protégé of the powerful Âli Pasha (d. 1871). As indicated above, Bedros emerged as a strong candidate for the governorship of Mount Lebanon on at least two occasions, partly because he was married to a Maronite, the niece of the manager of the Church's legation in Istanbul. Bedros served as director of Forests ad Mines and then as a member of the State Council.
Ohannes chose a career in the Foreign Ministry. He served as a counselor in the Ottoman Embassy in Rome. At the time of his appointment to Mount Lebanon, he was a counselor in the Foreign Ministry in Istanbul. He was nominated along with several other candidates, who included a senior inspector in the Ministry of Postage and Telegraph and a senior counselor in the Revenue Department. The choice fell on Ohannes. According to the protocol of 23 December 1912 and the imperial decree of the same date (13 M 1331), he was promoted to the rank of vizier and appointed to Mount Lebanon for a term of five years. He resigned in June 1915 because he did not want to work with Cemal Pasha, the military governor of the region during the First World War. Upon his return to Istanbul, Ohannes was appointed to the Senate. Later, he emigrated to Rome and died there. He had several children.[10]
The Last Governors (1915–1918)
On 11 July 1915, the Ottoman government formally abrogated the protocols. Thereafter the Interior Ministry appointed the governors of Mount Lebanon. Ali Münif Bey served from 25 September 1915 to 15 May 1916. He was then appointed governor of Beirut. Isma'il Haqqi (or Ismail Hakki Bey) replaced him in Mount Lebanon. It was Isma'il Haqqi who oversaw the publication of, and contributed to, the valuable compilation of studies on Lebanon, Lubnân: mabâhith 'ilmiyya wa ijtimâ'iyya . Indeed, by all accounts, both of these governors were capable and experienced administrators, but they had little power vis-à-vis the military authorities.
In the final months of the war, Isma'il Haqqi replaced Ali Münif in Beirut, and a Mümtaz Bey was sent to govern Mount Lebanon (15 Aug.–30 Sept. 1918). All he could do was abandon his position as soon as the news of the Ottoman defeat and retreat reached the Mountain.[11]